Definition
Espionage (Public/Private International Law) [Ro.: spionaj, Fr.: espionnage, Sp. espionaje, It.: spionaggio, Gr.: κατασκοπεία] (See also: counterintelligence, secret, sabotage) = it involves various activities such as hiding, seeking, researching, disguising in order to obtain secret/classified information with political/military/industrial/etc. character. It is practised by countries` secret services, the army or corporations (this is not a limited list). The person who does such activities is called a spy or secret agent.
Industrial ~ (Ro.: ~ industrial, Fr.: ~ industriel, Sp. ~ industrial, It.: ~ industriale, Gr.: εταιρική κατασκοπεία) (See also: corporations) = it is practised by corporations in order to outrun their competition. The secret information that must be collected, usually regards know-how, economic situation, innovative ideas etc.
Useful links
Legislation
http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo5/1-2/28 - Official Secrets Act 1911 [English UK]
http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo5/10-11/75/contents - Official Secrets Act 1920 [English UK]
https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/part-I/chapter-37 - US Code, Chapter 37 – Espionage and Censorship [English US]
https://legestart.ro/codul-penal-actualizat/ - Romanian Criminal Code, Article 400 [Romanian]
https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCode.do;jsessionid=401CEB4D2075ED60D07D225FD1543D0B.tplgfr32s_2?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006070719&dateTexte=20190312 - French Criminal Code [French]
https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-1995-25444 - Spanish Criminal Code [Spanish]
https://www.brocardi.it/codice-penale/libro-secondo/titolo-i/capo-i/art257.html - Italian Criminal Code, Article 257 [Italian]
https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/INTRO/195 - Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907 [English]
https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl/1595a804df7efd6bc125641400640d89/6756482d86146898c125641e004aa3c5?OpenDocument - Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949 [English]
http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/9_1_1961.pdf - The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961)
http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/9_2_1963.pdf - The Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (1963)
Organisations and associations
https://www.sis.gov.uk/ - Secret Intelligence Service (MI6)
https://www.cia.gov/index.html - Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
https://www.sri.ro/ - Romanian Intelligence Service (SRI)
https://www.defense.gouv.fr/english/dgse - Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure (DGSE)
https://www.dsn.gob.es/ - Departamento de Seguridad Nacional (DSN)
https://www.sicurezzanazionale.gov.it/sisr.nsf/chi-siamo/organizzazione/dis.html - Dipartimento delle informazioni per la sicurezza (DIS)
Case law
https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/249/47/ - United States Supreme Court, Schenck v. United States, 1919
https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/250/616/ - United States Supreme Court, Abrams v. United States, 1919
https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-57510%22]} - European Court of Human Rights, Klass and others v. Germany, 1978
https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22fulltext%22:[%22\%22CASE%20OF%20BUCUR%20AND%20TOMA%20v.%20ROMANIA%20-%20[Romanian%20Translation]%20by%20the%20SCM%20Romania%20and%20IER\%22%22],%22documentcollectionid2%22:[%22GRANDCHAMBER%22,%22CHAMBER%22],%22itemid%22:[%22001-123026%22]} - European Court of Human Rights, Bucur and Toma v. Romania, 2013
https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-7th-circuit/1645240.html - United States Court of Appeals, United States v. Hanjuan Jin, 2013
Online publications
https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Research_report_national_security_ENG.pdf - Council of Europe, European Court of Human Rights, Case-Law Research Report - National Security and European Case-Law, 2013
https://books.google.ro/books?id=_sB2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT206&lpg=PT206&dq=espionage+case+law&source=bl&ots=P3BFJVcXsS&sig=ACfU3U1YB6mY5IyrsNptwU-WjL_AbFdpAQ&hl=ro&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiAw5Kiuv3gAhXEsKQKHfVXCOAQ6AEwB3oECAIQAQ#v=onepage&q=espionage%20case%20law&f=false - Buchan, R., 2018, Cyber Espionage and International Law, Hart Publishing
https://books.google.ro/books?id=YTHlty6deKgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=espionage&hl=ro&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjo2ISTvv3gAhXFmIsKHTI-DWAQ6AEIJzAA#v=onepage&q=espionage&f=false - Hastedt, G., 2003, Espionage: A Reference Handbook, Santa Barbara, ABD-CLIO, Inc.
https://books.google.ro/books?id=g8HJHW2AuFIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=espionage&hl=ro&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjo2ISTvv3gAhXFmIsKHTI-DWAQ6AEIXDAH#v=onepage&q=espionage&f=false - Kish, J., Turns, D., 1995, International Law and Espionage, The Netherlands, Kluwer Law International
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3099769 - Lubin, A., 2018, Cyber Law and Espionage Law as Communicating Vessels, Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Cyber Conflict, CyCon X: Maximising Effects, NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence (CCDCOE) (2018)
Publications
Bogdan, S., 2014, Noul Cod Penal: analize, explicații, comentarii: perspectiva clujeană. Vol. 2: Partea speciala, București, Ed. Universul Juridic
Botău, D., 2013, Aplicarea dreptului internațional în subsistemul Convenției Europene a Drepturilor Omului. Cazul Kononov, București, Ed. Hamangiu, Cluj-Napoca, Ed. Sfera Juridică
Constantin, V., 2010, Drept internațional, București, Ed. Universul Juridic
Lafouasse, F., 2012, L`Espionage dans le droit international, Paris, Nouveau Monde
Nasheri, H., 2005, Economic Espionage and Industrial Spying, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
Thomas, R., 1991 or 2016 Edition, Espionage and Secrecy: The Official Secrets Acts 1911-1989 of the United Kingdom, Routledge
By Oana Bahnean